Motivation has been associated with the cognitive, biological as well as social factors to affect the behavior of humans. This has various explanations as it is a diverse phenomenon. From a psychological perspective, motivation is considered as an energizer of behaviour (Reber & Reber, 2001) and works as energy to direct one’s behavior towards a target (Eymur & Geban, 2011). It means that motivation is an inner urge that gives direction, stimulation, and supports goal-oriented actions (Ryan et al., 2000).

Motivation has been categorized into two main forms i.e. Intrinsic and Extrinsic motivation. Intrinsic motivation is related to the inner force of behaviour, such as want or desire. People who are intrinsically motivated do things because of the innate interest involved aiming at self-satisfaction and fulfilment (Ali et al, 2011, Sendogan and Iksan, 2012). In intrinsic motivation, the place of behaviour is almost completely internal. This category of motivation has also been connected with personal enjoyment along with internal satisfaction (Vallerand & Ratelle, 2002).

Conversely, extrinsic motivation comes out of factors such as family expectations and pressures, educational environment and teachers, and workplace responsibilities. Motivation within the environment which possibly affect one’s eagerness towards achievement are extrinsic factors. Extrinsic motivation refers to engage in activities that are a means to an end rather than an end in themselves (Schunk, Meece & Pintrich 2014). Individuals who are extrinsically motivated when their participation in certain things is aimed at attaining desirable outcomes such as material rewards, praise, or avoiding punishment (Schunk, Meece, and Pintrich, 2014).

Both intrinsic and extrinsic forms of motivation have been associated with educational environments. Both forms of motivation are influenced by different factors such as family environment, cultural level or social settings and educational mindsets (Ginsburg and Bronstein, 1993). Motivation has been identified as an important player in scholastic accomplishment among students at diverse points of the educational ladder. According to Uguroglu and Walbert (1979) (as cited in Ayub, 2010), motivation significantly contribute to student achievement (see also Chow and Yong, 2013). Extrinsic and intrinsic motivation can work as a driving force that affects students’ overall performance (Behzadi, 2014). Both types of motivation can play either a positive or negative role in terms of academic interest and achievement among students. However, both these forms of motivation are not essentially independent or exclusive. In many cases, both forms of motivation are overlapping and are often interdependent.

Research shows that students having towering academic motivation have a propensity to have higher academic attainment as well as a low level of dropout (Blank, 1997). Different studies investigated the role of motivation for students’ performance (Cheng, et al., 2011, Goodman et al, 2011, ErdemKeklik, & Keklik, 2013). Other studies have also strongly associated motivation and academic performance and success (Eymur and Geban, 2011; Fortier, Green, Nelson, Martin, Marsh, 2001; Guay, 1995; Johnson, 1996; McInerney, 2001; Sandra, 2002).

Males and females often have different motivation levels in terms of different educational programs and setups. Pomerantz et al (2002) indicate that females often set higher standards in the classroom and tend to critically evaluate their own performance. Researchers have consistently found that boys often show lesser motivation to study in the absence of more material interests or incentives. In contrast, females have higher motivation which is often associated with the tendency among them to please adults, including parents and teachers (Pomerantz, Altermatt, and Saxon, 2002).

In gender perspective, intrinsic motivation is greatly found among girls as compared to boys (Mecca and Holt, 1993; Anderman &Anderman, (1999). Boggiano (1991) argues that girls were more extrinsically motivated and were prejudiced by teacher feedback. Interestingly, however, some studies also show that there is no gender difference in terms of motivational orientations towards academic achievement. For instance, Hagborg (1995) has indicated that both boys and girls do not show any unique differentiation in the intensity of their intrinsic motivation. The same study has also revealed that the academic achievement of both boys and girls has been positively influenced by intrinsic motivation.

The discussion so far emphasizes the significance of motivation in terms of students’ academic achievement, orientation and interest. The gender focus on this issue is also interesting and inconclusive. The issue has not been much explored in the Pakistani context where gender has otherwise been an important and often conflicting issue in education. This indicates the significance of this particular study.

Objectives of the study

1. To explore the differences between motivation (intrinsic and extrinsic) among male and female students

2. To establish a link of motivation (extrinsic and intrinsic) with students’ academic achievement

The following section presents the hypotheses of this study.

Hypotheses of The Study

1. Intrinsic and extrinsic motivation is the same among girls and boys.

2. The relationship of intrinsic motivation with academic achievement does not exist.

3. The relationship of extrinsic motivation with academic achievement does not exist.

Motivation gives strength that stimulates an individual to achieve certain goals and to remain engaged in a task. Motivation is the key factor that gives students’ strength to achieve something, energize students' action and focus towards a higher goal including learning (Ormrod, 2000; Pintrich & Maehr, 2004) and it is a predictor of students' achievement (Beal & Stevens, 2007; Skaalvik&Skaalvik, 2006; Zhu & Leung, 2011). Across childhood through adolescence motivation plays a significant role in education and scholastic achievement (Elliot & Dweck, 2005). Self-Determination Theory suggests motivation as ranges from autonomous to controlled (Ryan and Deci, 2017), that distinguish extrinsic motivation to covers a wide range of controlled behavior and intrinsic motivation, that is related to autonomous behaviors (Ryan et al., 1985). Ryan and Deci. (2000) mentioned three kinds of motivation namely extrinsic, intrinsic and motivation.

Intrinsic motivation

Intrinsic motivation is described as performing any work, action and activity for once own self-satisfaction rather than for achieving rewards from others (Xie, Debacker, & Ferguson, 2006). Individuals having intrinsic motivation accomplish an activity for their enjoyment and pleasure (Olsson, 2008). According to Guay et al., (2010) intrinsic motivation is characterized by an innate pleasure, interest and joy that comes from within and enables an individual find pleasure and to enjoy in one's work and continue one’s interest in the effort for a longer time period As being entirely autonomous, intrinsic motivation is the most favorable and long-lasting category of motivation as compared to extrinsic motivation (Gao, 2008; Remedios, & Lieberman, 2008).

In academic setting, students having intrinsic motivation, complete tasks for accepting challenge, for self-satisfaction, and joy rather than any incentives or external pressures. Such students often feel more confident, satisfied, and take an interest in any task. Students with this motivation feel pride in his learning and subject and accept challenges in learning. Hence intrinsic motivation emphasizes self-regulation, self-commitment and self-determination without feeling any pressure (Brophy, 2010). Intrinsic motivation is of utmost importance because an intrinsically motivated student finds ways and means to master skills and content required for learning (Cavallo, Rozman, Blinkenstaff & Walker, 2003). Intrinsic motivation is more sustainable and within one's control that helps a student to keep going and retain information more easily. These students are enthusiastic and good learners, take on the responsibility of gaining and acquiring knowledge and are ever ready to try newer methods of learning and are not scared of failure in their attempts (Ainley, 2004; Dev, 1997).

Extrinsic motivation

Extrinsic motivation is characterized by an external environment like good grades, rewards, a bright promising career, parental approval, and appreciation by others. These rewards hold charm for specific time but beyond that or in their absence, the individual doesn't feel the urge to learn (DeLong & Winter, 2002). Students who are extrinsically motivated are dependent on various factors in the external environment like they learns because they want to get good grades, want to shape their career and also wants appreciation and applauded by others for their learning. According to Ardura and Pérez-Bitrián (2018) extrinsic motivation is associated with future preferences and it is the best predictor of future decisions.

Motivation and Academic achievement

Previous achievement and motivation influence future achievement. Motivation and academic performance are connected (Villafañe et al. 2016) and are considered critical to performance (Mujtaba et al., 2018) as both play an important function in students’ educational achievement (Cerasoli et al., 2014). Previous studies have found at different levels that a positive link continues amid the intrinsic motivation and academic achievement. For example, a significant association was found between scholastic performance and intrinsic motivation among university students in some studies (Ning and Downing, 2010). Similarly, Afzal, Ali, Khan, and Hamid (2010) conducted research in Pakistan also reported that learning and academic performance is promoted by intrinsic motivation.

Motivation and Gender

Students’ motivational beliefs in different subjects are guides of students’ feelings, actions and thinking that lead them towards success in learning (Clayton, Blumberg & Auld, 2010). Most of the previous researchers found that female students are more motivated towards the achievement of desirable learning goals as compared to male students. But from previously conducted researches it was found that the levels of intrinsic motivation of students vary on different subjects, towards various subjects’ different genders have different higher intrinsic and extrinsic motivation. No significant gender difference in higher motivation was found in all subject areas.

In comparing gender differences in different subjects at the university level, a study conducted by Narayanan, Rajasekaran, and Iyyappan (2007) found that in learning English, girls have greater intrinsic motivation compared to boys. Similarly, another research study reported higher intrinsic motivation in physical education among females as compare to males (Shang, 1998). Schatt (2011) found that female students perform batter in Instrumental musical practice in the subject of music that significantly correlated with their intrinsic motivational beliefs than males. According to Conti, Collins, and Picariello, (2001) and Burger, Dahlgren, and MacDonald (2006), male students are inclined towards higher intrinsic motivation in competition and gamble than their female counterparts.

This is a quantitative, descriptive type of research.

Population of the study

The population of the study comprised all students studying in the B.A (Hons) programs in two Pakistani universities namely Hazara University Mansehra and The University of Haripur in the Khyber Pakhtunkhwa province.

Sample of the study

The sample of the study comprised 162 (81 boys and 81 girls) students studying in the B.A (Hons) programs in two Pakistani universities in the Khyber Pakhtunkhwa province.

Research instrument

For measuring students’ motivation (intrinsic and extrinsic) motivation a scale developed by Lepper et al. (2005) was used. Items of the scale comprised of areas related to intrinsic as well as extrinsic motivation. 17 items represented intrinsic motivation including students’ personal curiosity-driven engagement, inclinations to master material independently and preference for challenging work.16 items in the scale were used to measure extrinsic motivation. The items focused on indicators such as dependence on the teacher, focus on pleasing authority, and preference for easy school work. As an average, these items formed an internally consistent (0.90 & 0.83) composite scale of intrinsic and extrinsic motivation.

Data collection and ethical considerations

Data were collected personally by the researcher. As part of the ethical considerations data were collected after seeking informed consent of the participants. Participants were ensured of anonymity and confidentiality. Participation was voluntary and questionnaires were filled during a planned time.

Data analysis

Since t-test is used for measuring the differences between the variables, therefore, for exploring gender difference in intrinsic along with extrinsic motivation, the t-test was used. Similarly, the correlation coefficient is used to explore the relationship between two or more variable, therefore, to explore the relationship among these variables Pearson correlation was used. The previous exam results of the participants were collected from their departments as a measure of academic achievement.

Table 1. Comparison of males and females students in intrinsic motivation

Table 1 indicates the difference between mean scores of boys and girls. The value of t is 0.509, which is less than the tabulated value (1.96) at 0.05 level. This indicates no noticeable gender differences in intrinsic motivation.

Table 2. Significance gender differences in the sub variables of intrinsic motivation

Table 2 indicates the obtained value of t is .281, which indicate no significant gender difference in terms of Challenge. In terms of Curiosity, the t-value (.852) shows no significant gender difference. No significant difference in gender (.072) was found in the aspect of Independent mastery.

Table 3. Comparison of males and females students in extrinsic motivation

Table 3 indicates the calculated value of t is -2.613, indicating a significant gender difference in terms of extrinsic motivation. Extrinsic motivation is greater among Male students as compared to female students.

Table 4. Gender difference in the sub variables of extrinsic motivation

In table 4 the value of t (-2.95) points toward a noteworthy gender distinction in the aspect of Easy work. In the sub variable, pleasing teacher, the calculated value of t -1.17 shows an insignificant gender difference. The calculated value of t (1.46) indicates an insignificant gender difference in the factor of dependence on the teacher.

Table 5. Comparison of males and females students in academic achievement

Table 5 indicates the value of t (2.07) that indicates a significant gender difference in academic outcomes. Result indicates that female students’ academic achievement is better than male students.

Table 6. Relationship of intrinsic motivation with academic achievement

p <0.05

Table 6 indicates the value of (r = .787, p<0.05) shows a significant association between students’ intrinsic motivation and academic achievement. Result indicates that high scores in intrinsic motivation lead to high academic achievement.

p>0.05

Table 7 indicates that there is a significant correlation (r = 0.447, p>0.05) linking students’ extrinsic motivation with academic success. The positive correlation coefficient indicates that extrinsically motivated students showed higher academic achievement.

This study aimed at exploring possible gender differences in kinds of motivation and their impact on university students’ academic achievement. Previous research shows that intrinsically motivated students are efficient in their performance than extrinsically motivated students. The extrinsically motivated students show a short term record of better performance but it could not be sustained for a longer time. Extrinsically motivated students might get good marks or perform well in one semester but their performance did not remain persistent in the next semester. The internally motivated students kept up their tempo of performance on the same level for their own interests and for their own learning. Such students seemed more likely to be ready for hard work to show better academic performance. The study finding shows noteworthy gender distinction in extrinsic motivation while no significant gender differences were found in the intrinsic motivation. Extrinsic motivation was greater among male students as compared to female students. Results indicate that female students’ academic achievement was better than male. The study’s first hypothesis that is “Intrinsic and extrinsic motivation is same among girls’ and boys’ was rejected. These findings are aligned with previously conducted studies. A study conducted by Mecca and Holt (1993) found that girls are likely to have more intrinsic motivation than boys. These findings also get support from the findings of Nadia (2010) and Mubeen, Saeed, and Arif, (2013) who found females as more intrinsically motivated and males as more extrinsically motivated.

There was a significant positive link of students’ intrinsic motivation with their educational success and a considerable bond between students’ intrinsic motivation and their educational success was found. The second and third hypothesis of the study is accepted. Previously conducted studies also indicated that better results are achieved by the intrinsically motivated students as they are less dependent on extrinsic stimuli of motivation in addition to their positive learning self-concept (Gottfried, 1985; Stipek, 1998). Similarly, the study findings are also consistent with the findings of Chee, Pino and Smith (2005) who found that in female students, the academic ethics and academic achievement are high.

Both forms of motivation have been associated with an impact on students’ academic achievement. The study reveals that gender and motivation types are associated with the sense that male students seem to respond more positively to extrinsic motivation while female students tend to have more intrinsic motivations. This study is helpful for university teachers to apply different motivational strategies during the course of instructions. The parents may be involved in different programs to motivate their children intrinsically and improve their academic performance. The study also implies that there is further scope for studying motivation and the relevance and effectiveness of its different forms on students’ academic achievement and interest. The degree of association of different forms of motivation with gender also needs further research.