The authors declare that they have no conflicts of interest.
This study did not require formal ethics approval.
Data sharing is not applicable to this article.
The authors received no specific funding for this work.
District Mansehra of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa Province is located in a very important strategic position. The district has been at crossroads since ancient times, thus welcoming and accommodating several dynasties with diverse cultural and religious backgrounds. The archaeological remains belonging to different religions recently reported from Mansehra have immense potential to attract religious pilgrims. Of these, the Buddhist heritage occupies the most important position. The Buddhist Heritage sites include stupas, monasteries, wells, water tanks, inscriptions, and paintings. With immense religious and architectural significance, these sacred sites have the potential to attract the Buddhist community from across the world. Promotion of these sites will enable the pilgrims to perform their religious rituals on the one hand and will uplift the living standard of local community on the other hand. The present research is an attempt to highlight the significance of the Buddhist sites reported during the archaeological survey in 2008. The research is based on the data collected by the senior author for his MPhil research.
Religious tourism, also known as pilgrimage tourism, has been one of the oldest forms of tourism throughout the world. The earliest evidence of temples and alters reported from Gobekli Tepe and Turkey are assigned to the Neolithic era. These temples and alters are said to have been constructed between 9600-8000 BCE with the purpose of worshipping nature gods and other deities (Clare et al. n.d.). Other ancient places of worship include Haqar Qim in Malta (Hughes et al. 2016), assigned to the 4th millennium BCE. Stone Henge (UK) dated to 2600 BCE. In South Asia, the river-based rituals and festivals, the forerunner of Hindu Pilgrimage, are believed to have been started as early as 5000 BCE. However, the Hindu pilgrimage (tirtha yatra) began much later (Singh, 2011). The Christian pilgrimage is said to have begun after a century of Jesus’s death, and it became one of the most widespread movements of long-distance travel in the Mediterranean region in 600 CE. Similarly, millions of Muslims travel to Makka and Madia every year to perform Hajj and Umra.
In Buddhism, spiritual travel has a unique place. Buddha also travelled to seek enlightenment and advised his disciples to visit the “Four Holy Places” after his departure. These four places are Lumbini, Bodh Gaya, Deer Park (Sarnath) and Kushinagar (San 2002).
Ashoka, when adopted Buddhist teachings, organised dharma yatras to promote morality throughout his kingdom. From China, devout Buddhists like Fa-Hsien, Xuanzang and I-Ching visited the region. These pilgrims faced a lot of difficulties which sometimes pushed them to death but could not stop them from visiting the holy places.
Like other parts of the world, Pakistan is also blessed with thousands of religious sites belonging to different religions, including Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism, Christianity, Zoroastrianism and Islam. It is difficult to discuss all these holy places and their religious significance in a single paper. The present study is thus confined to the potential of religious tourism in Mansehra with a special focus on the Buddhist pilgrimage sites.
Mansehra, one of the important districts of the Khyber Pakhtunkhwa Province of Pakistan, is located to the east of the River Indus.
Map Showing Cultural Resources of District Mansehra
Map Showing Distribution of
Archaeological Sites in District Mansehra
It lies between 34° 14´ to 35° 10´ north latitude and 72°55´ to 74° 6´ east longitude and 1227 metres above sea level (hereafter asl) (Imperial Gazetteer of India, Provincial Series, Northwest Frontier Province 1991; Watson 1907). Mansehra is also known as Takht-i Hazara (i.e. the Throne of Hazara) for its scenic beauty and cultural richness. The district covers an area of 4579 square kilometres with Kohistan, Batagram and Diamir districts to its north, Muzaffarabad district of Azad Jammu & Kashmir to the east, Abbottabad and Haripur districts to the south, Shangla and Buner districts to its southwest and Swat to the west (District Census Report 1981).
Mansehra, due to its unique strategic position, has remained a melting place of various cultures and civilisations since the early historic period. It lies at the juncture of four important roads: the Karakorum Highway starting from Taxila and proceeding to the upper Indus. The second and third roads go east, one leading to Kashmir and the other proceedings to Gilgit via Kaghan and Babusar pass. It was due to this reason that Emperor Ashoka chose this place appropriate for inscribing his famous fourteen edicts in the middle of the 3rd century CE (Dani,1995). Archaeological remains reported from Mansehra have confirmed that the region has been continuously inhabited by various dynasties adhering to different religious practices from the 3rd century BCE till the present time. Evidence of these religious practices has been revealed in the form of Rock Edicts, Buddhist Stupas & Monasteries, Hindu Temples, Muslim period Mosques & shrines and the Sikh Gurudwaras. Of these, the Buddhist pilgrimage sites were found in the majority, which are the focus of the present study.
Despite its important strategic position, Mansehra District remained unexplored till the first extensive survey was carried out by Hazara University in 2007-08. Until this time, the number of known Buddhist sites in Mansehra was less than two dozen. Of these, the Ashokan Rock Edicts were engraved on three stone boulders near But Pul, Mansehra, the Minor Edicts in Shahdour Ogi, and the Zar Dheri Buddhist complex located on the right bank of Siran River, Zaro Dheri is worthy of mentioning. A review of the earlier research relevant to the core of the present topic is presented in the following paragraphs:
The earliest mention of the Buddhist heritage in Hazara can be found in the account of the Chinese pilgrim Xuanzang, who came to the region in the 7th century CE and mentioned Hazara as it as Wu-La-Shi. Xuanzang informs us about the socio-political and religious conditions of the region. He also mentions the existence of a great Buddhist establishment near the capital city of the country (believed to be Mangal, located between Mansehra and Abbottabad). According to him, this Buddhist establishment was built by Ashoka and was in the service of Mahayanists. The Buddhist remains of Shah Kot or Mochikot, reported by the Department of Archaeology, Hazara University, Mansehra, is claimed to be the same Buddhist complex referred to by the Chinese pilgrim (Beal 1981, 1; Ali et al. 2009). The remains of the Buddhist complex can still be seen in the form of a huge mound located about 700 meters from the CPEC near in Mangal area.
The second important document on the Buddhist heritage of Mansehra is the survey report of H. Hargreaves, the then Superintendent of the Archaeological Survey of India in Frontier Circle, who visited the region in 1920 and recorded the Zar Dheri Buddhist complex along with some other sites (Hargreaves 1923).
A.D.H. Bivar, the famous numismatist, visited Hazara in 1994 and tried to create awareness among the locals about the importance of their rich cultural past. In this connection, he published an extensive report on Zar Dheri. He considered it a probable provenance of a gold relic model, which was put on display in an exhibition of Indian Art organised by Messrs Spink and sons in London, lasted from May 24 to June 25, 1978. In addition, he also mentions many other sites in his account and suggests further investigations in the region (Bivar 1996). The Site Zar Dheri is also mentioned by Saif ur Rahman Dar along with Zaro Dheri and Pishora, located in and around Mansehra (Dar 2006).
Another important work on the Buddhist heritage of Mansehra is the report by Shama Habib which presents detailed account of the Ashokan Rock Edicts located at Mansehra on the main Karakoram Highway (Habib, 2001).
Stone Boulders near Mansehra Engraved with the Ashokan Rock Edicts
The Tokyo National Museum’s Archaeological
Mission to Pakistan, in collaboration with the Department of Archaeology and
Museums, conducted an excavation at Zar Dheri. The team carried out a total of
seven seasons of excavation at the site from 1995-99. These excavations were
very productive and unearthed a good number of antiquities
In addition to the excavation at Zar Dheri,
the Japanese Mission also made 54 new archaeological discoveries in the region
from 1992-93. Of these, Purana Sajkot and Chhatian Kot were reported from
Mansehra
In 2002, Abdul Azeem published an article on
some of the antiquities reported by Zar Dheri. He compared some of the
sculptures with those reported from Gandhara and Udiyana. According to him,
some of the sculptures from Zar Dheri, i.e. (ZRD-37) (ZRD-60) (ZRD-75), have a close
resemblance with those recovered from Butkara-I and Saidu Sharif
But the most extensive field research in Mansehra was carried out by Hazara University Mansehra from 2007-08. These investigations initially started with the financial support of Hazara University Mansehra and were later resumed with the collaboration and financial support of other organisations. These field explorations have unfolded more than 1000 archaeological sites in the Mansehra region. But as mentioned earlier, the present paper is confined to the Buddhist heritage in Mansehra unfolded during the survey in 2008.
Like other places of religious significance, the Buddhist stupas, monasteries, and other sites associated with Buddha, Dharma and Sangha have become important destinations for pilgrimage tourism in different parts of the world, including China, India, and Nepal, Sri Lanka, Korea and Japan. In Pakistan, the Buddhist complexes of Dharmarajika, Julian, Mohra Muradu and Bhamala (Taxila), Manikyala (Rawalpindi), Takht-i-Bahi and Shahbaz Ghari sites (Mardan), Rani Ghat and Aziz Dheri (Swabi) and Butkara I and III (Swat) have been the major destinations for the Buddhist pilgrims. And the archaeological explorations in Mansehra by Hazara University have confirmed that being one of the richest regions in terms of Buddhist heritage, it has the potential to attract pilgrims from across the world. The present research aims to highlight the religious potential of these Buddhist sites and to devise a strategy for the promotion of feasible sites for pilgrimage tourism. A catalogue of the Buddhist sites unfolded during the archaeological survey of Mansehra in 2008 is given below:
| | | | | |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1 | Bedadi | Located to the right side of Karakorum
Highway (henceforth KKH) and CPEC. The site reveals stone structures and
terracotta potsherds | 34° 27.172´ N 73° 16.191´ E Elevation: 1007m above sea level (ASL) | The site is badly damaged and not feasible for promotion |
| 2 | Zaro Dheri | Located on the right side of KKH, about one
km to the southeast of Shinkiari, It is presently used for agricultural
activities. It reveals remnants of stone structures and potsherds | 34° 37.284´ N 73°16.591´ E Elevation: 991m (ASL) | Badly damaged and not feasible for archaeological excavation and promotion |
| 3 | Alla Pairan | Located in Pairan Khairabad, The site has
been converted into an agricultural field. Potsherds were found during the
field survey | 34° 19.899´ N 73°18.457´ E Elevation: 1372m (ASL) | Damaged by Zahoor Husain Shah, the owner and not feasible for promotion |
| 4 | Pir Kot | Located in Pairan Khairabad, A huge Buddhist
complex (Fig. 3 as given in the appendix) reveals stone structures of semi-diaper
and ashlar masonry and terracotta potsherds | 34° 20.347´ N 73° 18.553´ E Elevation: 1572m (ASL) | Intact and feasible for excavation and promotion |
| 5 | Mor Baffa Step Well | Located in Mor Baffa, a small well provided
with steps; is still in use | 34° 15.083´ N 73° 04.639´ E Elevation: 1072m (ASL) | Intact and feasible for the promotion of faith tourism. |
| 6 | Mari Kot | Located in Lassan Takral village (Fig. 4 as
given in the appendix). Illegal diggings at the site have revealed stone
structures and potsherds | 34° 15.296´ N 73° 03.675´ E Elevation: 1126m (ASL) | Badly damaged and not very feasible for promotion. |
| 7 | Muhallah Ziarat Naukot | Located in Naukot, presently occupied by
modern houses, construction at the site revealed a large number of terracotta
potsherds | 34° 25.509´ N 73° 10.615´ E Elevation: 912m (ASL) | Severely disturbed and not feasible for promotion |
| 8 | Naukot Dheri-I | un-irrigated land located in village Naukot,
partially occupied by modern houses; reveals potsherds | 34° 25.478´ N 73° 10.923´ E Elevation: 945m (ASL) | Partially damaged but feasible for excavation and promotion. |
| 9 | Naukot Dheri-II | Un-irrigated land located in Naukot village;
partially occupied by modern houses and mosques; potsherds reported | 34° 25.381´ N 73° 10.894´E Elevation: 932m (ASL) | Partially excavation is damaged but feasible for excavation and promotion. |
| 10 | Kharand Mera Naukot | Located in Naukot, owned by Firdos and
Zardad Khan; presently used for agricultural activities. The site reveals
terracotta potsherds and remnants of stone structures | 34° 25.785´ N 73° 10.102´ E Elevation: 894m (ASL) | Partially disturbed by the antiquarians. Feasible for excavation and promotion. |
| 11 | Shali Kund Dheri | Located on the left bank of River Siran in Naukot; un-irrigated land presently owned by Sarwar Khan and Haroon Khan; foundations of stone walls and potsherds reported (Hameed, 2012). | 34° 25.785´ N 73° 10.102´E Elevation: 894m (ASL) | Intact and feasible for excavation and promotion. |
| 12 | Tajul-I | Located on the left bank of River Siran in
Naukot, irrigated land is presently owned by Zubair. The site reveals
terracotta potsherds | 34° 25.037´ N 73° 10.586´ E Elevation: 809m (ASL) | Partially damaged by the antiquarians; feasible for excavation and promotion |
| 13 | Tajul-II | Located in Naukot on the left bank of River
Siran, irrigated land reveals a large number of potsherds | 34° 24.965´ N 73° 10.786´E Elevation: 904m (ASL) | Partially damaged. A trial trench may help to confirm its potential. |
| 14 | Tajul-III | Located in Naukot on the left bank of River
Siran, irrigated land reveals terracotta potsherds. | 34° 24.927´ N 73°10.738´ E Elevation: 906m (ASL) | Partially damaged. A trial trench may help to confirm its potential. |
| 15 | Dhana-II | Located in Lassan Thakral, irrigated land
reveals stone wall structures and terracotta potsherds | 34° 14.944´ N 73° 04.903´ E Elevation: 1125m (ASL) | Partially damaged. A trial trench may help to confirm its potential. |
| 16 | Sand Hari Kot | Located in Mor Baffa Kalan; un-irrigated
land presently owned by Muhammad Riaz Khan; The site reveals terracotta
potsherds, figurines and (stone) wall structures | 34° 15.004´ N 73° 04.116´ E Elevation: 1138m (ASL | Partially damaged but feasible for excavation and promotion |
| 17 | Jabba Rock Paintings-I | Located in Lassan Thakral, unknown symbols are
painted in red colour on the inner surface of the stone boulder, presently
owned by Shafiq Khan | 34° 15.526´ N 73° 03.753´ E Elevation: 1036m (ASL | Deteriorating and eed to be conserved and promoted. |
| 18 | Jabba Rock Paintings -II | Located in Lassan Thakral, unknown symbols are
painted in red colour on the inner surface of the stone boulder; the site is
presently owned by Shafiq Khan | 34° 15.583´ N 73° 03.710´ E Elevation: 1039m (ASL | Deteriorating; needs to be conserved and promoted. |
| 19 | Char Khola Kot | Located in village Takya, Lassan Takral;
un-irrigated land partially destroyed by illegal diggers; the site reveals
stone wall in semi-ashlar masonry along with terracotta potsherds | 34° 15.306´ N 73° 04.115´ E Elevation: 1167m (ASL) | Partially Damaged but feasible for excavation and promotion. |
| 20 | Jabba Rock Paintings-III | Located in Lassan Thakral, unknown symbols are
painted in red colour; the site is presently owned by Shafiq Khan | 34° 15.562´ N 73° 03.700´ E Elevation: 1043m (ASL) | Deteriorating; needs to be conserved and promoted. |
| 21 | Jabba Rock Paintings-IV | Located on the right bank of Jabba stream in
Lassan Tahakral, unknown symbols are painted in red colour on the inner
surface of a huge boulder; the site is presently owned by Shafiq Khan | 34° 15.580´ N 73° 03.705´ E Elevation: 1010m (ASL) | Deteriorating; needs to be conserved and promoted. |
| 22 | Khalyala Rock Painting-I | Located in Mor Baffa Kalan, unknown symbols are
painted in red colour on the surface of stone boulder; the site is presently
owned by Noor Muhammad | 34° 15.565´ N 73° 03.757´ E Elevation: 1029m (ASL) | Deteriorating; needs to be conserved and promoted. |
| 23 | Khalyala Rock Painting-II | Located in the village Mor Baffa Kalan,
measures 226x52 inches; paintings in red colour; the site is presently owned
by Noor Muhammad | 34° 15.692´ N 73° 03.753´ E Elevation: 1037m (ASL) | Deteriorating; needs to be conserved and promoted. |
| 24 | Khalyala Rock Painting-III | Located in the village of Mor Baffa Kalan,
unknown symbols are painted in red colour on the interior surface of the stone
boulder; the site is presently owned by Noor Muhammad | 34° 15.535´ N 73° 03.729´ E Elevation: 1066m (ASL) | Deteriorating; needs to be conserved and promoted. |
| 25 | Tariya Kot | Located in Mor Baffa Kalan; un-irrigated
land presently owned by Sultan Awan; The site reveals terracotta potsherds.
The owner also claims to have found coins during the process of digging | 34° 15.123´ N 73° 04.330´ E Elevation: 1120m (ASL) | Partially damaged, Feasible for excavation and promotion |
| 26 | Sial Kot | Located in Mor Baffa Kalan; un-irrigated
land presently owned by Sultan Awan. The site reveals terracotta potsherds
and stone wall structures in semi-ashlar masonry | 34° 15.240´ N 73° 04.250´ E Elevation: 1194m (ASL) | Partially disturbed, feasible for excavation and promotion |
| 27 | Gial-II | Located in village Mor Baffa Kalan (Fig. 6
as given in the appendix);. It is un-irrigated land that reveals stone
structures. The dressed stone was reused in modern construction by the local
community | 34° 15.503´ N 73° 04.334´ E Elevation: 1112m (ASL) | Partially damaged but feasible for excavation and promotion. |
| 28 | Gial-III | Located in Mor Baffa Kalan, un-irrigated
land presently owned by Shafiq Khan Tanoli; remnants of stone structures in
ashlar masonry were observed during the survey | 34° 15.663´ N 73° 04.386´ E Elevation: 1113m (ASL) | Partially damaged. Feasible for excavation and promotion |
| 29 | Gial-IV | Located in Mor Baffa Kalan (Fig. 7 as given
in the appendix), un-irrigated land is presently owned by Shaffeeq Khan
Tanoli. The site reveals stone structures in ashlar masonry | 34° 15.579´ N 73° 04.215´ E Elevation: 1108m (ASL) | Partially damaged. Feasible for excavation and promotion |
| 30 | Blag Pain | Located in village Shalia, irrigated land
presently owned by Farid Baba; remnants of stone structures reported | 34° 17.047´N 73° 06.951´ E Elevation: 951m (ASL) | Severely damaged and feasible for excavation and promotion |
| 31 | Lunda-I | Located in Mor Baffa Kalan, un-irrigated
land presently owned by Bani, remnants of stone structures and potsherds were
reported | 34° 15.699´ N 73° 04.983´ ´E Elevation: 863m (ASL) | Partially damaged but feasible for excavation and promotion. |
| 32 | Narial | Located in village Mor Baffa Kalan (Fig. 8
as given in the appendix), lies between north latitude and longitude; 981
metres above the sea level; un-irrigated land presently owned by Muhammad
Afzal Khan. The site reveals structures in stone and terracotta potsherds | 34° 15.637´ N 73° 05.575´ E Elevation: 863m (ASL) | Partially damaged by the antiquarians. Feasible for excavation and promotion |
| 33 | Char Khola | Located in Lassan Takral, presently used for
agricultural activities, wall structures in stone and potsherds were reported
| 34° 16.421´ N 73°04.958´ E Elevation: 916m (ASL) | Severely Damaged. Not feasible for promotion |
| 34 | Gali | Located in the village of Lassan Takral,
partially damaged and used for agricultural activities, potsherds were reported
during the survey | 34° 15.968´ N 73°03.542´ E Elevation: 964m (ASL) | Partially damaged. Feasible for excavation and promotion |
| 35 | Pir Sawan | Located in Lassan Takral, un-irrigated land,
potsherds were revealed during the survey | 34° 15.955´N 73°03.923´ E Elevation: 975m (ASL) | Partially damaged by antiquarians. Feasible for excavation and promotion |
| 36 | Kotla | Located in Lassan Takral. It is an
un-irrigated land that reveals stone structures and potsherds | 34° 16.035´ N 73°03.340´ E Elevation: 1034m (ASL) | Partially damaged but feasible for excavation and promotion |
| 37 | Kotla Rock Paintings-I | Located in Lassan Takral (Fig. 9 as given in
the appendix), unidentified images and symbols are painted in red colour
deeper into the boulder | 34° 16.035´N 73°03.340´ E Elevation: 1035m (ASL) | Intact and Feasible for promotion |
| 38 | Kotla Rock Paintings-II | Located in Lassan Takral, unidentified
images and symbols are painted in red colour | 34° 16.070´ N 73°03.334´ E Elevation: 1000m (ASL) | Intact and feasible for promotion |
| 39 | Step Well, Chari | Located in Mor Baffa Kalan, measures 35x35
inches; diaper masonry wall now plastered with cement; presently owned by
Muhammad Saleem | 34° 14.985´ N 73°04.704´ E Elevation: 1086m (ASL) | Intact and Feasible for promotion |
| 40 | Chari-II | Located in Mor Baffa Kalan, remnants of wall
structures in rubble masonry and potsherds; are presently owned by Muhammad
Saleem and Sher Ahmad | 34° 14.980´ N 73°04.704´ E Elevation: 1090m (ASL) | Partially damaged. Feasible for excavation and promotion |
| 41 | Thali, Mor Baffa Khurd | Located in Mor Baffa Kalan, lies between 34°
15.326´ north latitude and 73°05.840´ longitude; 1127 metres above sea level;
remnants of wall structures and potsherds; presently owned by Sufi | 34° 14.980´ N 73°04.704´ E Elevation: 1090m (ASL) | Partially damaged. Feasible for excavation and promotion |
| 42 | Charr | Located in Mor Baffa Kalan, remnants of wall
structures in diaper masonry and potsherds; are presently owned by Muhammad
Naeem | 34° 15.326´ N 73°05.840´ E Elevation: 1127m (ASL) | Partially damaged. Feasible for excavation and promotion |
| 43 | Lunda Mor Baffa Kalan | Located in Mor Baffa Kalan, potsherds
exposed; presently owned by Muhammad Saleem | 34° 16.373´ N 73°05.462´ E Elevation: 914m (ASL) | Partially damaged but feasible for excavation and promotion |
| 44 | Pullan Da Dhoga-II | Located in Mor Baffa Kalan, unirrigated land
reveals potsherds | 34° 17.180´ N 73°06.110´ E Elevation: 1130m (ASL) | Partially damaged but feasible for excavation and promotion |
| 45 | Pullan Da Dhoga –I | Located in Mor Baffa Kalan, potsherds and
remnants of wall structures were reported | 34° 17.135´ N 73°05.78´ E Elevation: 1120m (ASL) | Partially damaged. A trial trench may help to confirm its potential. |
| 46 | Pullan Da Dhoga-III | Located in Mor Baffa Kalan, potsherds were reported
| 34° 18.090´ N 73°08.100´ E Elevation: 1200m (ASL) | Partially damaged. A trial trench may help to confirm its potential. |
| 47 | Pullan Da Dhoga-IV | Located in Mor Baffa Kalan, potsherds were reported
| 34° 18.090´ N 73°08.100´ E Elevation: 1200m (ASL) | Partially damaged. A trial trench may help to confirm its potential. |
| 48 | Pullan Da Dhoga-V | The site is located in Mor Baffa Kalan;
foundations of a stone wall are reported | 34° 18.090´ N 73°08.100´ E Elevation: 1200m (ASL) | Severely damaged. Not feasible for promotion |
| 49 | Pullan Da Dhoga VI | Located in Mor Baffa Kalan, Potsherds
reported | 34° 18.090´ N 73°08.100´ E Elevation: 1220m (ASL) | Severely damaged and not feasible for promotion |
| 50 | Pullan Da Dhoga-VII | Located in Mor Baffa Kalan, remnants of
structures and Potsherds were reported | 34° 18.090´ N 73°08.100´ E Elevation: 1230m (ASL) | Partially damaged. Feasible for excavation and promotion |
| 51 | Pullan Da Dhoga-VIII | Located in Mor Baffa Kalan, Potsherds and
stone structures were reported | 34° 18.090´ N 73°08.100´ E Elevation: 1255m (ASL) | Severely damaged and not feasible for promotion |
| 52 | Pullan Da Dhoga-IX | Located in Mor Baffa Kalan, Potsherds
reported | 34° 18.090´ N 73°08.100´ E Elevation: 1270m (ASL) | Severely damaged and not feasible for promotion |
| 53 | Lunda-I | Located in Mor Baffa Kalan, remnants of
stone structures and potsherds were reported | 34° 18.090´ N 73°08.100´ E Elevation: 1270m (ASL) | Severely Damaged and not feasible for excavation |
| 54 | Lunda-II | Located in Mor Baffa Kalan, remnants of
stone structures and potsherds were reported | 34° 15.714´ N 73°04.580´ E Elevation: 1008m (ASL) | Severely Damaged and not feasible for excavation. |
| 55 | Lunda-III | Located in Mor Baffa Kalan, remnants of
stone structures and potsherds were reported | 34° 15.714´ N 73°04.580´ E Elevation: 1011m (ASL) | Partially damaged but feasible for excavation and promotion |
| 56 | Shengre-I | The site is located in Lassan Thakral;
remnants of stone structures and potsherds were reported | 34° 15.035´ N 73°04.899´ E Elevation: 1115m (ASL) | Partially damaged but feasible for excavation and promotion |
| 57 | Shengre II | Located in Lassan Thakral, potsherds and
remnants of stone structures were reported | 34° 15.024´N 73°04.872´ E Elevation: 1103m (ASL) | Partially damaged but feasible for excavation and promotion |
| 58 | Shengre-III | Located in Lassan Thakral, remnants of stone structures and potsherds were reported (Hameed, 2012). | 34° 15.035´ N 73°04.877´ E Elevation: 1106m (ASL) | Partially damaged but feasible for excavation and promotion |
| 59 | Kole de Gali-I | Located in Lassan Thakral, potsherds and
foundations of wall structures | 34° 15.023´ N 73°04.915´ E Elevation: 1119m (ASL) | Severely damaged and not feasible for promotion |
| 60 | Sare sire I | located in union council Lassan Thakral,
remnants of wall structures and potsherds were reported | 34° 15.039´ N 73°04.845´ E Elevation: 1093m (ASL) | Partially damaged but feasible for excavation and promotion |
| 61 | Sare sire-II | located in Lassan Thakral; presently
converted to agricultural fields; remnants of wall structures and potsherds
reported | 34° 15.039´ N 73°04.845´E Elevation: 1093m (ASL) | Severely damaged and not feasible for promotion |
| 62 | Sare sire-III | located in Lassan Thakral; remnants of stone
structures; materials are being used in the modern construction by the local
community | 34° 15.059´ N 73°04.842´ E Elevation: 1106m (ASL) | Severely damaged and not feasible for promotion |
| 63 | Sare sire-IV | located in Lassan Thakral; remnants of wall
structures and potsherds were reported | 34° 15.074´ N 73°04.845´ E Elevation: 1174m (ASL) | Severely damaged and not feasible for promotion |
| 64 | Kaware | located in Lassan Thakral; a huge complex
comprised of rooms of various sizes (i.e. 19x19 and 25x25); while the largest
one measures 13.33x9 metres; the site is presently owned by Shamrez Khan | 34° 16.428´N 73°08.924´ E Elevation: 1093m (ASL) | Partially damaged but feasible for excavation and promotion |
| 65 | Chansoor Dheri-I | located in Jabba Malikpur, Tarangri Pain;
partially converted into an agricultural field; remnants of wall structures
and potsherds exposed due to illegal digging by antiquarians; the site is
presently owned by the Swatis | 34° 26.594´ N 73°09.006´ E Elevation: 1029m (ASL) | Partially damaged but feasible for excavation and promotion |
| 66 | Chansoor Dheri-II | located in Jabba Malikpur, Tarangri Pain;
partially converted to agricultural fields; remnants of wall structures and
potsherds were reported around the robbers’ pits | 34° 26.636´ N 73°09.006´ E Elevation: 1054m (ASL) | Partially damaged but feasible for excavation and promotion |
| 67 | Mansoor Dheri-I | located in Jabba Malikpur, Tarangri Pain;
partially destroyed by the local antiquarians; remnants of stone structures
and potsherds were reported ( | 34° 26.729´ N 73°09.072´ E Elevation: 1046m (ASL) | Partially damaged but feasible for excavation and promotion |
| 68 | Mansoor Dheri-II | located in Jabba Malikpur, Tarangri Pain
reveals remnants of stone structures and potsherds | 34° 26.831´ N 73°09.197´ E Elevation: 1071m (ASL) | Partially damaged but feasible for excavation and promotion |
| 69 | Makrian-I | Located in Shinkiari, wall structures in
diaper masonry walls provide foundations for the modern structures; the site
is presently owned by Abdul Ghafoor | 34° 28.960´ N 73°16.695´ E Elevation: 1070m (ASL) | Severely damaged and not feasible for promotion |
| 70 | Makrian-II | Located in Shinkiari reveals remnants of
stone structures | 34° 28.965´N 73°16.699´ E Elevation: 1072m (ASL) | Severely damaged and not feasible for promotion |
| 71 | Makrian-III | Located in Shinkiari reveals remnants of
stone structures and a potsherd, presently owned by Janas ( | 34° 28.965´N 73°16.699´ E Elevation: 1080m (ASL) | Severely damaged and not feasible for promotion |
| 72 | Makrian-IV | Located in Shinkiari reveals, stone wall
structures in deteriorated condition | 34° 28.965´N 73°16.699´ E Elevation: 1080m (ASL) | Severely damaged and not feasible for promotion |
| 73 | Makrian-V | Located in Shinkiari; remnants of wall
structures in diaper masonry; are presently occupied by modern buildings;
owned by Janas and Gul Rehman | As Above | Severely damaged and not feasible for promotion |
| 74 | Makrian-VI | The site is located in Shinkiari; remnants
of wall structures in diaper masonry; are presently occupied by modern
buildings; owned by Janas and Gul Rehman | As Above | Severely damaged and not feasible for promotion |
| 75 | Nima-I | Located in Lassan Thakral, remnants of stone
structures were reported | 34° 14. 546´N 73° 04.43´ E Elevation: 1018m (ASL) | Severely damaged and not feasible for promotion |
| 76 | Kotli Dheri-I Echrian | Located in Echrian, Measuring 266.6x21.6
metres, the site reveals stone structures and potsherds reported to be presently
owned by a Swati family | 34° 30. 159´ N 73°14.265´ E Elevation: 1230m (ASL) | Partially disturbed by antiquarians but feasible for excavation and promotion |
| 77 | Kotli Dheri-II Echrian | Located in Echrian reveals remnants of stone
structures and potsherds reported; presently owned by a Swati family | 34° 30. 174´ N 73°14.336´ E Elevation: 1143m (ASL) | Partially disturbed by antiquarians but feasible for excavation and promotion |
| 78 | Kotli Dheri-III Echrian | Located in Echrian; it comprises four
terraces that reveal remnants of stone structures and potsherds; presently
owned by a Swati family | 34° 30. 370´ N 73°14.388´ E Elevation: 1184m (ASL) | Partially disturbed by antiquarians but feasible for excavation and promotion |
| 79 | Kotli Dheri-IV Echrian | Located in Echrian (Shninkiari), remnants of
stone structures and potsherds are reported, presently owned by a Swati
family | 34° 30. 330´ N 73°14.384´ E Elevation: 1184m (ASL) | Partially disturbed by antiquarians but feasible for excavation and promotion |
| 80 | Zar Dheri | Located in Shinkiari on the right side of
Shinkiari-Dader Road (Fig. 10 as given in the appendix); A huge Buddhist
establishment comprising stupa and monastery; DOAM Govt. of Pakistan, in
collaboration with the Tokyo National Museum Archaeological Mission from 1995
to 1999; the excavations conducted at the site revealed 146 archaeological
artefacts including Buddhist sculptures, architectural elements, coins and
iron objects | 34° 29. 934´ N 73°16.240´ E Elevation: 1122m (ASL) | Excavated by the Toyo National Museum and DOAM from 1995-99. Feasible for promotion. |
| 81 | Sirkap | Located in Shinkiari on the right side of
Shinkiari-Dader Road about 1 KM east of Zar Dheri site, remnants of stone
structures in rubble masonry potsherds are reported; presently owned by Nasim
Khan Dharyal | 34° 29. 909´ N 73°16.733´ E Elevation: 1122m (ASL) | Partially damaged by the antiquarians and earthquake in 2005 but feasible for excavation and promotion |
| 82 | Nakka | Located in Saven Mera, potsherds and
grinding stones reported during the field activities. | 34° 17.244´ N 73° 59.093´ E Elevation: 782m (ASL) | Partially damaged but feasible for excavation and promotion |
| 83 | Sabir Khan Dheri | Located in Saven Mera, un-irrigated land
owned by Muhammad Arif, potsherds were reported | 34° 24.815´ N 73° 06.632´ E Elevation: 964m (ASL) | Partially damaged but feasible for excavation and promotion |
| 84 | Arif Shah House Naukot | Located in the village of Naukot, potsherds,
pestles and grinding stones were reported during digging at the site | 34° 25.509´ N 73° 10.615´ E Elevation: 912m (ASL) | Severely damaged but feasible for excavation and promotion |
| 85 | Maeeyan-I | Located in Lassan, Thakral, structural
remains comprising six rooms, each measuring 7x7 metres; potsherds were also
found along the robbers’ pits | 34° 16. 235´ N 73°09.326´ E Elevation: 1394m (ASL) | Partially damaged but feasible for excavation and promotion |
| 86 | Maeeyan-II | Located in Lassan Thakral reveals stone structure
remains and potsherds | 34° 16. 263´ N 73°09.435´ E Elevation: 1410m (ASL) | Partially damaged by local antiquarians but feasible for excavation and promotion |
| 87 | Maeeyan-III | Located in Lassan Thakral reveals stone
structure remains exposed, comprised of two large rooms, each measuring
12.6x6 metres | 34° 16. 230´ N 73°09.324´ E Elevation: 1392m (ASL) | Partially damaged but feasible for excavation and promotion |
| 88 | Barogani, Tarani Bala | Located in Tarangni Sabir Shah, presently
occupied by modern houses while the remaining are used for agricultural
activities; Mr Saleem Chingari, the owner, claims to have found stone
sculptures during the process of digging; found | 34° 26. 509´ N 73°09.748´ E Elevation: 959m (ASL) | Severely damaged and not feasible for promotion |
| 89 | Jaray Ziarat, Tarani Bala | Located in Tarangni Sabir Shah; presently
used for agricultural activities; owned by the Swati family; potsherds
reported | 34° 26. 388´ N 73°09.886´ E Elevation: 886m (ASL) | Severely damaged and not feasible for promotion |
| 90 | Giderpur Dheri | Located in Tarangri Paien; un-irrigated land
presently owned by Gul Rehman; wall structures and potsherds were reported | 34° 27.296´N 73° 08.362´ E Elevation: 1021m (ASL) | Severely damaged and not feasible for promotion |
| 91 | Chansoor Dheri-III | Located in Jabba Malikpur, remnants of stone
structures and potsherds were reported | 34° 26. 564´N 73°06.101´ E Elevation: 968m (ASL) | Intact and feasible for excavation and promotion |
| 92 | Chansoor Dheri-IV | Located in Jabba Malikpur, presently
occupied by modern houses and agricultural fields, potsherds were reported | 34° 26. 522´ N 73°06.154´ E Elevation: 929m (ASL) | Severely damaged and not feasible for promotion |
| 93 | Mansehra Serket house | Located to the right side of
Mansehra-Balakot road, un-irrigated land presently occupied by modern
buildings, including Marcopolo Hotel; Potsherds and terracotta figurines are reported
| 34° 20 444´ N 73°12.515´ E Elevation: 1100m (ASL) | Severely damaged and not feasible for promotion |
| 94 | Bela Pakwar Banda | Located in Tarangni Sabir Shah, it lies
between 34° 27 489´ north latitude and 73°10.023´ longitude; 918 metres above
sea level; presently used for agricultural activities; stone structures and
potsherds exposed | 34° 20 444´ N 73°12.515´ E Elevation: 1100m (ASL) | Severely damaged and not feasible for promotion |
| 95 | Timber Khola | Located in Hamsherian, potsherds and
remnants of stone structures were reported; the site is presently owned by
Iftikhar | 34° 22. 006´ N 73°09.154´ E Elevation: 1082m (ASL) | Partially damaged but feasible for excavation and promotion |
| 96 | Chora Naka | Located in Hamsherian; presently used for
agricultural purposes; Mr Nisar, a local antiquarian, is said to have found a
terracotta earthen pot contained twelve gold coins during the process of construction;
potsherds reported | 34° 21. 729´ N 73°09.021´ E Elevation: 994m (ASL) | Severely damaged and not feasible for promotion |
| 97 | Dhuma | Located in Hamsherian reveals potsherds; the
local community claim to have found terracotta animal and human figurines. | 34° 22. 158´N 73°09.335´ E Elevation: 898m (ASL) | Partially damaged by the antiquarians but feasible for excavation and promotion |
| 98 | Chitar Kot | Located in Hamsherian, a Huge settlement
site comprised of rooms of various sizes, Saad Khan is said to have found
gold coins of Kanishka during the illegal digging; potsherds and stone wall
structures were reported | 34° 22. 356´ N 73°08.214´ E Elevation: 945m (ASL) | Partially damaged by the antiquarians but feasible for excavation and promotion |
| 99 | Mari Muqarrab Shah | Located in Hamsherian, potsherds and
remnants of stone structures in diaper masonry were found; recently owned by
Abid Shah and Ali Asghar Shah for agricultural activities | 34° 23. 139´N 73°09.340´ E Elevation: 927m (ASL) | Partially damaged by the antiquarians but feasible for excavation and promotion |
| 100 | Khota ka Maira I | Located in Hamsherian, presently used for
agricultural activities owned by Haq Baba; potsherds reported | 34° 22. 890´ N 73°10.186´ E Elevation: 892m (ASL) | Partially disturbed by the antiquarians but feasible for excavation and promotion |
| 101 | Khota ka Maira II | Located in Hamsherian, irrigated land
presently owned by Khurram Khan; potsherds reported | 34° 22. 890´N 73°10.186´ E Elevation: 892m (ASL) | Partially disturbed by the antiquarians but feasible for excavation and promotion |
| 102 | Chitar Kot-II | Located in Hamsherian, un-irrigated land
presently owned by Iftikhar Shah; potsherds and wall structures were reported
| 34° 22.149´ N 73°08.027´ E Elevation: 899m (ASL) | Partially damaged by the antiquarians but feasible for excavation and promotion |
| 103 | Khota ka Maira II | Located in Hamsherian, presently used for
agricultural activities, owned by Akbar Khan, potsherds were reported | 34° 22. 919´N 73°10.096´E Elevation: 951m (ASL) | Partially damaged by the antiquarians but feasible for excavation and promotion |
| 104 | Ban Koti-I | Located in Khawajgan, the site is partially
occupied by modern water tanks and houses, while the remaining is used for
agricultural activities, as potsherd reported | 34° 28. 284´ N 73°07.711´E Elevation: 978m (ASL) | Partially damaged by the antiquarians but feasible for excavation and promotion |
| 105 | Ban Koti-II | Located in Khawajgan; the site is partially
occupied by modern houses, while the remaining is used for agricultural
activities; presently owned by Miskeen Khan; potsherd reported | 34° 28. 247´N 73°07.745´ E Elevation: 973m (ASL) | Partially damaged by the antiquarians but feasible for excavation and promotion |
| 106 | Ban Koti-III | Located in Khawajgan, irrigated land
presently owned by Miskeen Khan; potsherd reported | 34° 28. 247´ N 73°07.745´ E Elevation: 973m (ASL) | Partially damaged by the antiquarians but feasible for excavation and promotion |
| 107 | Dhanna Kot | Located in Mor Baffa Kalan (Fig. 5 as given
in the appendix); partially converted into agricultural fields owned by
Saleem Khan; potsherds and dressed stone walls | 34° 14.919´ N 73°04.606´ E Elevation: 1119m (ASL) | Partially damaged by the antiquarians but feasible for excavation and promotion |
The Buddhist heritage sites from Mansehra
were analysed on the basis of their present condition. The condition of sites was measured using a nominal scale based on three attributes (i.e., Intact, severely damaged, and partially damaged). Sites with 80 to 100% ancient remains were considered intact; those with 40 to 80% ancient remains were marked as partially damaged, while those with less than 40% remnants were marked as severely damaged. The attribute of each site was examined and recorded using the data collection/survey form. Statistical analysis of the data shows that out of 107 sites, only four were found intact. Thirteen sites were found severely disturbed, and 90 sites were found partially disturbed. The severely damaged sites with less than 40% remains are not feasible for promotion. At the same time, the intact and partially damaged sites are feasible for excavation, conservation, and tourism promotion.
Strategies for the Promotion of Tourism
During the present research, it was noticed that most of the archaeological sites and monuments are not in a good state of preservation and are disappearing at an alarming rate without even being properly explored and documented due to lack of awareness, lack of ownership and interest and under-financing. Natural disasters, for instance, the earthquake (2005), also caused damage to the heritage sites in the region. But the most challenging threats to the archaeological sites are the local antiquarians who have caused irreparable damage to most of the archaeological sites in the length and breadth of Mansehra. To protect the heritage sites and utilise them same for the promotion of religious and cultural tourism, the following steps should be taken immediately:
? The first step in promoting tourism is the conservation and restoration of the monuments. Most of the monuments are not in a good state of preservation and thus need to be conserved from further decay. Government agencies and NGOs should take steps to protect heritage through conservation, restoration, and rehabilitation. The media should play its role in highlighting the importance of this unique heritage and its benefits.
? Accessibility is one of the most important elements in tourism development. Fortunately, the majority of the monuments are easily accessible. However, the condition of the roads leading to individual monuments needs to be improved.
? Sites located near the city of Abbottabad and Mansehra cities do have accommodation and other facilities. At the same time, those located in far-flung areas lack the basic facilities, i.e. food, accommodation, security, accessibility and transportation. Thus, there is a need to install signboards at suitable points indicating the directions. On the spot, there should be arrangements for light refreshment and washrooms. Tourist information centres need to be opened for the guidance of the visitors in the district. Professional guides are also needed to provide guided tours. After the provision of the above-mentioned facilities, these Buddhist sites may be sold as products.
Mansehra, one of the important districts of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa province, is blessed with immense potential for pilgrimage tourism. The region encompasses sacred sites belonging to different faiths/religions, including Buddhism, Hinduism, Islam, Sikhism and Christianity. Of these, the Buddhist heritage sites are greater in terms of number and potential. But most of the Buddhist sites have been either struck by natural disasters or disturbed due to human vandalism. But there is still a lot, which, if properly restored and conserved, may attract thousands of Buddhist pilgrims. Most of these heritage sites being located along the Karakoram Highway and CPEC, are easily accessible. However, there is a need to develop a proper tourism plan for the Buddhist heritage of district Mansehra and execute it immediately. Most of these sacred sites need to be conserved and restored immediately. After providing basic tourism facilities at the destinations, each pilgrimage site may be marketed through electronic, print, and social media.
The authors declare that they have no conflicts of interest.
This study did not require formal ethics approval.
Data sharing is not applicable to this article.