Abstract

Abstract: The COVID-19 pandemic's persistent impacts and associated repercussions still hinder efforts to meet sustainable development goals (SDGs) by 2030. Food prices have increased over the past year as a result of supply chain disruptions brought on by the COVID-19 outbreak, soaring transportation costs, and other factors. There are shortages and food inflation rates are rising. In addition, notably in low-income nations, the increasing frequency and severity of extreme climatic events are likely to disrupt supply networks significantly. The study explores the factors that exacerbate the situation and then makes policy recommendations to address the problem effectively.

Key Words

: Food Security, COVID-19, Russia-Ukraine, Pakistan, Africa, Sustainable Development Goals.

Introduction

"Climate change does not respect any border, it does not respect who you are, rich and poor, small and big. Therefore, this is what we call global challenges, which require global solidarity" (Ban-ki-Moon)

Human rights and food security are intricately connected since food security is a core human right that is correlated with other security factors including the economy, health, and environment. Food insecurity compromises fundamental rights and lowers the average and growing level of living for people. Food security entails the accessibility of food in a state (or territory) as well as people’ capacity to acquire, purchase, and obtain appropriate foods in a fixed geography or region. The availability of food independent of socioeconomic status, gender, or geographic location is another component of food security. Food security was a concern millennia ago, with records of governing organizations in ancient China and Egypt moving food from storage facilities during famines.  

Food security is a significant, critical, and multifaceted issue in developing countries. This sophisticated and complex issue involves various causes ranging from food utilization to availability and access. In the developed world, most countries must import food to satisfy domestic demand. Low-income and developing nations are thought to be the world's most susceptible since they are net food importers. It is well-recognized and accepted that addressing the grave issue of food security necessitates a well-coordinated and comprehensive regional and worldwide effort. 

In the context of the rising calamities in the world, first in the form of the COVID-19 pandemic and then the Russian invasion and the consequent war in Ukraine, which have created a looming challenge for food security around the globe, both developed and developing world, this paper will study food shortage and food crisis in the Global South through the case study of Pakistan and the countries in the Horn of Africa. It will analyze the factors and effects and will make policy recommendations to address the issue effectively.

What is Food Security?

Food security entails having adequate access to food in order to meet dietary energy requirements. It also refers to home self-sufficiency in the production of necessary food. A country capable of managing supply and demand balance through local output, regardless of equilibrium pricing (which can be out of reach of the majority population) (Ewing-Chow & Slade, 2016). However, global and national food security focuses primarily on the supply side of the food equation, regardless of whether there is enough food available. The availability of food does not, however, ensure that everyone will have it. To maintain food security at the individual and family levels, it is critical to address access demands. (Midgley, 2009).

1. Availability: the production, distribution, and sale of food to meet needs. 

2. Accessibility: Food distribution, cost, and consumer and household preferences all go under the umbrella term of "food access."  

3. Use: After a household purchases food, a variety of variables affect the quantity and calibre of food that is distributed to family members. Food processing, cooking, and preparation in the home and community all have an impact on food safety.

4. Stability: nourishment stability is the capacity to continuously accept nourishment.

All of the above-mentioned components are influenced by a community’s political, economic, physical, and other situations. Food security is unquestionably a fundamental human right that affects all aspects of life. The lack of this security breeds various insecurities, undermining and horrifyingly affecting human rights and freedom.

Famine and hunger are both rooted in food insecurity. There is a high level of susceptibility to famine and hunger as a result of ongoing food insecurity; establishing food security necessitates removing that vulnerability (Suleri, 2020).

How is Food Security Measured?

The level of food security experienced by any household is midway between the two extremes. The four ranges that make up this spectrum are as follows:

1. High food security: Households didn't experience any difficulties or worries about consistently getting enough food. 

2. Marginal food security: Although some households had trouble or concerns about getting enough food, the quantity, quality, and diversity of food they consumed did not change noticeably.

3. Low food security: While maintaining normal food consumption and eating routines, households lowered the quality, diversity, and attractiveness of their meals.

4. Very low food security: The household occasionally ran out of money and other food resources, which caused one or more members to miss meals or reduce their food consumption.

The Impacts of Climate Change on Food Security

Global Climate change has affected almost all parts of human life and natural processes. It has become an important debate in international relations and global politics. The major effect of climate change which is interrupting human life is its effects on food and food production. Climate change has altered the natural climate course and is impacting human life significantly. However, the roots of the issue come from the human practices of deforestation, industrialization, urbanization, the emission of carbon, greenhouse effects etc. Delving into the profound consequences of the rising temperature of the planet on the global food system reveals that there is an alarming rise in food security. The transformation of the earth's climate and its impact on agricultural production and availability of food is becoming evident. Food insecurity is a multi-dimensional concept which stretches from the developing countries to the developed ones. No part of the world will stay out of this impact, however, the intensity of the problem might differ from state to state.  Studies put forward the facts that how rise in temperatures, extreme weather events, shifting precipitation patterns and other climate-related factors disrupt the balance of food production and supply. Marginalized groups and populations of vulnerable regions are going to be the leading victims of food insecurity. Small-scale agriculturalists and farmers who lack of resources and capacity to stand with climate change, the indigenous communities who are coping with the loss of traditional sources of food and the escalation of food prices are the core issues under debate. 

South Asia comprises 23% of the total world population and 44% of the global poor population resides here. The major populated countries of the South Asian region are developing with limited resources and less advancement towards technology. The region has also gone through some massive natural disasters which altered the way of life and living. The Indian Ocean Earthquake and Tsunami in 2004, affected Indonesia, Sri Lanka, India, Thailand and Maldives which caused major life, infrastructural and land destruction. The Kashmir Earthquake of 2005, affected Pakistan and India; the two leading agricultural countries of the world. The Kosi River Floods which caused heavy rains in India and affected large lands, crops and fertile land.  The Pakistan Floods of 2010 which was also caused by heavy rains and displaced thousands of people and agricultural land. 

Although climate change is a global issue, the South Asian region is specifically being affected by it. South Asia is the leading part of the world from where the supply of food items is controlled. The geographical location of this region is very special in reference to agriculture and agricultural growth. India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Sri Lanka and Indonesia are the leading exporters of edible food items. The agricultural land of these countries feeds more than half of the population of the Earth. With the tilt in the global climate, the natural temperature of this land has been interrupted. Which is not fulfilling the natural demand for crops to grow. Due to changes in climate, the production of crops is shrinking. Keeping in view the climate shift, the developed countries are finding alternatives to food production which includes efforts to develop artificial environments or methods to grow crops. They are also working on the preservation of food and food items to deal with future food shortages so that the supply of food does not stop. The developing countries are unfortunate to do so because of a lack of resources and technological advancements. There is a fear that these countries may face a severe food shortage due to the change in fertile land's natural behaviour.  There are least preparations in this region to deal with this issue. Secondly, agriculture is the backbone of the region's economy. The drop down in food exports will lead these states towards economic decline. There are a number of factors which the region should work on collectively and search for alternatives. But to do so, there is a need to know the diagnosis of the issue first. 

Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) and Food Security

One of the programs aiming at improving global food security is the UN Millennium Development Goals. According to the first Millennium Development Goal, the UN’s goal is to “eradicate severe hunger and poverty” by 2015. The UN Special Rapporteur on the Right to Food, Olivier De Schutter, calls for a multifaceted response to food security concerns. This method emphasises food’s physical availability; people’s social, economic, and physical access to food; and food’s nutrition, safety, and cultural appropriateness or adequacy (Levitt, 2003).

To tackle severe poverty and hardship, the United Nations has established the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs), which offer a framework for accomplishing eight broad and specific development goals by 2015. All of the MDGs are related. MDG 1a's goal of reducing the percentage of hungry people would go a long way in achieving the other MDGs.

Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) and Food Security

Actor coordination has been lacking at the national, regional, and international levels. Promote the coherence of all pertinent national and international policies relating to the right to food, as well as convergent policies, strategies, and programs that give priority to meeting both long-term and emergency requests for food security and nutrition, in order to overcome the structural causes of hunger and malnutrition. Cross-sectoral government assistance, political commitment, and coordinated long-term actions are necessary to accomplish these aims. Interventions must be well-financed, capable of implementation, and able to track their results (Hendrix, 2016).

Zero Hunger Challenge

The goal of the Zero Hunger Challenge is to mobilize all stakeholders—including businesses—to abolish all forms of malnutrition and create inclusive, resilient, and sustainable food systems.

The Zero Hunger vision consists of five parts that, when taken together, have the power to eradicate all forms of malnutrition, put an end to hunger, and create inclusive and sustainable food systems (Mobo & Garcia, 2022)

Food Insecurity as a Result of Contemporary Global Events

The developed world is typically thought to be immune from concerns about food security. People who are wealthy and privileged are said to have their “basic needs” addressed, including clothing, a place to live, access to clean water, and enough food. This is not the case, though. The International Food Policy Research Institute’s current definition of food security, which includes the following, will be used in the following discussion.

? Dimension: energy

? Quality: the availability of all necessary nutrients

? Safety: free of pollutants and harmful substances

? Common Availability: nationwide, in local markets, and finally at the household level. 

? Palatability: taste, texture, and so on.

? Acceptability within Culture

A First World urban setting places a greater emphasis on a number of factors. Generally speaking, the idea of quantity is the least urgent concern. In most cases, the population has access to enough food to meet their daily caloric needs. As a result, the other variables are brought into stark contrast, with quality and acceptance being two of the most challenging to achieve.

For instance, the United States has its own nutritional issues even though it does not share the same issues as a famine-stricken Ethiopia in the early 1980s. In the United States where food insecurity has been a recurring, if less serious, problem, the notion of food security substitutes the medical establishment of malnutrition and hunger during the 1980s. Meeting the nutritional requirements in a broad sense is not a problem.  In light of the First World urban environment's reliance on food security, questions about quality, safety, and cultural acceptability arise (Swinnen & McDermott, 2020).

Food Insecurity after COVID-19

The world is facing a food crisis of undetermined but extremely huge dimensions. The underlying sources of this emergency include the COVID-19 outbreak, the global prevention and control efforts implemented, and the tremendous economic repercussions of these essential actions (Schmidhuber & Qiao, 2020). Conflict, natural disasters, and the transnational invasion of pests and diseases all predate COVID-19 and act as supplementary pressures in many circumstances. However, there are significant systemic issues in the direction the food systems operate that can no longer be ignored. This is not a catastrophe like the 2008 food crisis or the local emergencies caused mostly by natural catastrophes and human strife during the previous five decades. 

Global food markets had been solid, with enough stockpiles of major commodities following a bumper crop in 2019. The greatest challenges to food security and nutrition were anticipated to emerge from other sources, such as a drop in worldwide demand for globally manufactured agri-food goods, increased disturbances in local food markets, and expanding food security concerns because of the collapse of vital sources of income. The overall effects might cause a decrease in global, and particularly local, food production in many nations in the latter part of 2020, leading to price increases and food accessibility concerns. Further substantive implications on people's lives were expected by late 2020 via low, lower-middle, upper-middle, and high economies. Existing food reserves were expected to be depleted as local food shortfalls became more widespread. High-value products, such as vegetables, fruits, meat, fish, and dairy, were particularly prone to operational issues since their manufacturing was costly and the goods were highly consumable. Datasets on food mobility by commodities type assisted in providing transparency and reducing panic-driven behaviour by governments in response to foreign or domestic trade barriers (Torero, 2020)

Food Insecurity After the Russia-Ukraine War

The most recent issue with global food insecurity is not a singular occurrence. Due to the COVID-19 outbreak, issues with the supply chain, and escalating inflation, global food prices have been rising since the middle of 2020 and are currently at an all-time high. 36 countries have food inflation rates of 15% or greater. For low-income families that spend more than 50% of their income on food, they are creating major problems. 60% of low-income countries now face a high risk of financial hardship or are currently going through it, up from 30% in 2015. Fuel prices are at a seven-year high. The worldwide market is a major focus for the supply and reserve of food. The world's wheat reserves are held by three countries, which also export 86% of the world's wheat. The numbers are equivalent for coarse grains, corn, rice, and soybeans. 30% of the wheat and barley consumed worldwide before the conflict originated in Russia and Ukraine. More than half of the wheat imported by 36 countries, including some of the weakest and poorest in the world, came from them. (Ben Hassen & El Bilali, 2022).

Catastrophes like the conflict in Ukraine may swiftly disrupt the world's food supply, raising prices, because there are just a few highly concentrated markets. Shocks like the Ukrainian crisis have made it very evident that food poverty concerns are not necessarily caused by access constraints. Instead, accessibility and price are the deciding factors in everything.

With the battle still going on, acute food insecurity, already at record levels, is expected to worsen. In the 81 countries where the U.N. World Food Programme (WFP) is active, acute hunger is anticipated to increase by 47 million people, from 276 million to 323 million. The most significant increases are anticipated in sub-Saharan Africa, which represents a shocking 17% rise (Ben Hassen & El Bilali, 2022).

Impact of Food Insecurity in the Underdeveloped World

The majority of the poor and developing third-world nations have continued to experience famine, starvation, and malnutrition. Malnutrition and starvation have a detrimental effect on health, lowering productivity and progressively slowing down economic growth. Climate change, natural disasters, population growth, a food crisis, rising food costs, and depleting resources have all made matters worse and are now starting to impact wealthy, industrialized nations. These challenges are now acknowledged as being related to food insecurity on a global scale.

These circumstances may result in undernourishment. The agrarian, cereal, and export pricing indices ended the day at levels close to those from two weeks prior. The agricultural index was unchanged, the cereal index was down 2%, and the export index was up 1%. Prices for wheat and maize were 5% and 19% higher than in January 2021 and 25% and 29% higher than they are now. With a closing price that was the same as two weeks ago, rice has stayed impressively constant. Despite being 14% lower than in January 2021, rice prices were 10% higher year over year. The uncertainty surrounding the Black Sea Grain Initiative provides for large amounts of industrial food exports from three major Ukrainian Black Sea ports of Chornomorsk, Odesa, and Yuzhny. According to the most current AMIS Market Monitor released on November 3, it continues to have an effect on grain prices globally, as indicated by the significant rises in average maize and wheat prices in October. (United Nations, 2022). Inflation and interest rate increases might lower commodities prices and raise prices. Labour and resources are used to manufacture, store, and transport commodities. Unfavorable weather patterns might hinder agricultural industry production, thus limiting agricultural markets. Since November 7, twenty countries have placed 24 prohibitions on the export of food, while eight have imposed 12 restrictions. 

Millions of people fall into severe poverty as a result of a worldwide crisis spurred on by rising food costs, which also worsens hunger and malnutrition. Rising food and energy costs driven on by weather shocks and war have now stalled the recovery. 222 million people in 53 countries and territories are anticipated to endure extreme food insecurity and need emergency help, according to an FAO-WFP projection. According to IMF data, the 48 countries most affected by the higher import costs for food and fertilizer need to invest an additional $5 billion to $7 billion to help disadvantaged people. It will need an additional $50 billion to end severe food insecurity (Shalal, 2022). 

The obstacles in reducing and combating global food insecurity have become increasingly challenging. Current problems to food security involve food price volatility coupled with higher energy costs, the effects of climate change, global financial uncertainty, and an increasing number of conflicts.

The Case Study of the Food Crisis in Pakistan

The COVID-19 virus epidemic has made a significant impact on world economic conditions. The pandemic's consequences are still producing a variety of non-traditional security challenges, and the situation with regard to food security in emerging and poor nations is getting worse. Due to the catastrophic effects of the COVID-19 epidemic over the world, the World Food Program (WFP) revealed that 271.8 million people had severe food insecurity. Similarly, the COVID-19 wave has caused significant food insecurity for 20%–30% of Pakistan's population, or around 40–62 million people (Ubaid-ur-Rehman, 2021). However, other problems, such as socioeconomic and environmental difficulties, also contribute to Pakistan's rising food insecurity crisis.

Table 1

Regions	Asia and the Pacific	Central Asia, Middle East, North Africa	Central and West Africa	Southern Africa	East Africa	Latin America and the Caribbean	Total
Number (Millions)	51.4	54.5	57.4	50.1	40.1	18.4	271.8

The situation is much worse in emerging nations, where growth that has been socioeconomically disadvantaged has made already weak agri-food systems even more vulnerable, which has a negative impact on people's livelihoods. A "crisis" level of acute food insecurity affects almost 135 million people, according to the Global Report on Food Crises 2020, necessitating prompt action. The research claims that over 183 million people are on the edge of a "crisis" due to their "stressed" levels of severe food insecurity. (FAO, 2020).

The COVID-19 virus epidemic in Pakistan has major economic shocks, persistently prevalent poverty, and issues with food security. The World Health Organization's emergency threshold of 18% has been exceeded globally (Hafiz Ubaid-ur-Rehman, 2021).

Figure 1



Climatic Conditions

Extreme weather conditions have become increasingly common in Pakistan in recent years. Extreme heat, periods of drought, and floods are now an annual occurrence, threatening both food and water security. These repercussions disproportionately affect marginalized groups such as the poor, the elderly, and women. The devastating floods of 2022, damaged 4.4 million acres of cropland and the loss of 0.8 million livestock (Cluster, 2022).

The War in Ukraine

 Food insecurity has been made worse by the Russia-Ukraine crisis since Ukraine, the fifth-largest market for wheat exports worldwide, provides approximately 40% of Pakistan's imports of wheat. Russian blockades in the Black Sea region have a negative impact on Ukrainian wheat exports and global supply chains. Wheat flour costs have increased by more than 60% since the start of the conflict as a result, which has an impact on grain prices on the global market. After being suspended for months, exports have just restarted, lessening the likelihood of a worldwide food catastrophe; yet, ongoing uncertainty and persistent weather stress pose a threat to Pakistan's food security. (Malik, 2022).

Inflation and Dwindling Reserves

Food security cannot be achieved entirely through abundant provision. In July, Continuously soaring fuel prices increased the input costs, energy, and logistics costs in the agricultural sector. Fertilizer and domestically assembled tractors have skyrocketed in price, thus making it difficult for farm owners to purchase them. Pakistan would be required to source approximately 3 million tonnes of wheat at a cost of $1.5 billion to match domestic consumption (Malik, 2022). If the same pattern holds, the government’s spending will start rising further in the face of ongoing economic difficulties, resulting in an increase in the fiscal and current account deficits (Malik, 2022).

2022 Floods

Devastating floods struck Pakistan from June 14 to October 20, 2022, causing 1,739 fatalities, severe property destruction, and economic losses of Rs 3.2 trillion ($14.9 billion) and Rs 3.3 trillion ($15.2 billion), respectively. These floods were ascribed to glaciers melting and heavier-than-usual monsoon rains, both of which have a connection to climate change. Pakistan responded to the floods on August 25, 2022, by announcing a state of emergency due to the severity of the crisis.

These floods, which have been called the worst in the nation's history, were the deadliest since the floods that hit South Asia in 2020. Additionally, they are among the costliest natural disasters in recorded human history. The former climate change minister of Pakistan, Sherry Rehman, emphasized that rainfall in the provinces of Sindh and Balochistan was far above average for August, with 784% and 500% greater rainfall, respectively. In addition, monsoon rainfall in Bangladesh and India was above average. The average temperature of the Indian Ocean, which is renowned for its fast warming, has increased by 1 °C (1.8 °F), whereas world temperatures are at 1.2 °C (2.2 °F) above pre-industrial levels. It is thought that this increase in sea surface temperatures is a factor in the enhanced monsoon rainfall. In addition, record-breaking heatwaves in southern Pakistan in May and June were made worse by climate change. A strong thermal low-pressure system was produced by these heatwaves, which caused more rain to fall than usual. In Gilgit-Baltistan, the heatwaves also brought on glacier floods. (Zoha, Tunio, 2 August 2022).

Pakistan continues to be very sensitive to climate change while producing less than 1% of the world's greenhouse gas emissions. An international team of climate experts found in their study that global warming increased the chance of future floods and up to 50% of the severity of the current flooding. It is crucial to remember that some elements that contribute to the intensity of the floods are unique to the nation. Deforestation in Pakistan has also played a significant role in exacerbating the flood situation. (Harvey, Fiona 15 September, 2022).

The Case Study of the Food Crisis in the Horn of Africa

According to WHO the Greater African continent is facing one of the disastrous food insecurity crises of the last seventy (70) years. As Ethiopia, Kenya, and Somalia suffer from the most severe drought in 40 years, at least 36.1 million in the Horn of Africa are dying of starvation. With multiple failed rain seasons, rising basic living expenses, rampant inflation, extreme climate disruptions, the Ukrainian conflict, which has resulted in wheat and fertilizer supply problems, and insecurity, signs are pointing to the predicament spiralling out of control. Food systems, comprising both domestic and imported supply, in the area are at the point of collapse, with an estimated 82 million individuals experiencing severe food insecurity ((WHO), 2022).




The above maps show areas ranging from minimal to chronic food insecurity areas across Africa, thus, pointing towards an alarming situation.

Causes of Food Insecurity in Africa

Locust Attacks

Desert locusts first attacked the Horn of Africa in late June 2019, when large numbers of spring-bred locusts from Yemen reached in northeast Ethiopia and north Somalia. Despite continued control activities in impacted regions of Ethiopia, Kenya, and Somalia, desert locusts have indeed been able to reproduce and spread due to exceptionally favourable climatic conditions. In April 2020, East Africa experienced widespread rains for the second month helping in locust development and breeding.  Huge numbers in areas with low shock resilience raise concerns about the region's probable rise in food insecurity. According to FAO, approximately 1mn people have been adversely affected by the desert locust attack and need food aid immediately (IPC, 2020).

Pandemic

The East and Horn of Africa region, like the rest of the world, has been affected by the COVID-19 pandemic. Travel regulations within and throughout countries have posed a number of challenges to the area's nutritional well-being and food security. According to the United Nations, the pandemic has already resulted in deepening food insecurity, particularly for the most disadvantaged groups. The impact of COVID-19 is particularly severe for populations employed in the informal sector, self-employed, displaced, people residing in slums, and low-income state employees in rural and urban areas. Approximately 56 million people live in urban areas, with roughly half of those living in informal settlements and slums have been left unemployed (IPC, 2020). Border closures have also affected the global food supply chain, hence disrupting the population's access to food and the actual availability of food. Individuals from the informal economy relocating from rural to urban areas will inevitably face a challenging problem because of the loss of income and job opportunities. As a result, several people's food security will indeed be jeopardized, notably those who live in the East and Horn of Africa territory. Millions of refugees and displaced persons live in congested encampments in the region, relying on international humanitarian assistance. COVID-19 impedes accessibility of humanitarian aid to such communities as well as response efforts.

Extreme Weather Conditions

While South Sudan is facing the worst flooding of the last 40 years, Somalia and Kenya face the worst drought due to the fifth consecutive no-rain season. Making it impossible to rely on their own agricultural output. Water availability has become exceedingly challenging since most water sources have run dry Women and girls are being compelled to travel to areas in search of this valuable commodity, subjecting them to Sexual And gender-based Violence (International, 2022).

From countries located in the Horn of Africa to countries in Asia, food insecurity is presenting a major challenge for domestic and international organizations. A plethora of issues has even further exacerbated the problem especially the current climate-induced catastrophes and War in Ukraine. Organizations for humanitarian assistance, like the World food Program, used to buy half of their wheat stock for providing food aid from the" Breadbasket" region of Ukraine before the war (Riquier, 2022). The current crisis might result in Ukraine being at the receiving end of food assistance.

Policy Analysis

International Assistance for Agricultural and Food Strategy  

Keeping healthy foods more affordable for all is essential, considering the reversals in hunger, food insecurity, and nutrition and the financial, health, and climatic difficulties the nations are experiencing. Examining the present policy support for the food and agricultural industry is crucial to achieving this goal since it will help determine the most urgent policy decisions.

Governments assist agriculture and food through a broad range of policies, including financial subsidies to consumers and producers, trading and market regulations (such as border restrictions and market rate checks) that provide pricing motivations or impediments, and "General Services Support" (GSS). These rules may impact every shareholder in the food industry, which may influence the accessibility and cost of balanced diets. From 2013 to 2018, global aid for food and agriculture totalled nearly $640 billion annually. 70% of this assistance went directly to individual farmers through commerce, market, and fiscal measures that were primarily combined with output or unrestricted use of input variables (FAO, 2022).

The high and upper-middle-income nations primarily aid agricultural farmers through border controls and increasing production-uncoupled fiscal supports. In comparison, the ability to give subsidies is more constrained in lower-income nations, and economic plans are frequently used to protect the public rather than businesses.

In general, agricultural output is supported primarily by the productivity of staple food, dairy products, and other foods containing protein, particularly in high and upper-middle-income nations. The most highly encouraged foods globally are rice, sugars, and various forms of meat. In contrast, manufacturers of vegetables and fruits receive less general support or are taxed in certain lower-income economies.

Border controls impact the variety, cost, and accessibility of goods in domestic industries. Although some of these policies aim to achieve crucial goals (such as raising public funds or guaranteeing food safety), they can occasionally operate as protectionist measures for nutritive foods, hurting the affordability and accessibility of healthier foods. 

Market price regulations, such as minimal or regulated prices, primarily target sugar and basic staples like maize, wheat, and rice. While maintaining or increasing farm revenue and ensuring an adequate supply of basic foods is their main goal, they may also subtly inhibit the development of other essential items for consuming a balanced diet.

Fiscal incentives for agricultural production have improved the availability and lowered the cost of basic foods and their derivatives in numerous nations. Because they are generally more costly, unsubsidized or less subsidized products like fruits, vegetables, and legumes have been prevented from being consumed. Basic services are viewed as public goods that have the potential to boost efficiency over the long run, improve food accessibility and security, and bring down food prices, such as those for nutrient-dense foods. However, only a small portion of the funding for agriculture and food is spent on services. These are frequently geared toward basic foods and remain behind the real demands of the industry, particularly in lower-income nations.

Whereas consumer incentives make up a tiny portion of public funding for food production, nutrition-conscious consumer policies and programs can increase the consumption of nutritious foods, particularly when they are directed at the most susceptible or underprivileged populations and are supplemented by nutrition and agriculture learning.

Possibilities for Repurposing Policy Support for Agriculture and Food to Increase the Accessibility of a Healthy Diet

Before deciding what elements of food and agricultural policy support should be adjusted and how it is important to thoroughly consider the potential ramifications and trade-offs suggested by different policy combinations. This is essential for directing policy decisions and finding the ideal balance between all components of sustainable development. 

Governments could see that modifying their assistance for food can be a means to improve the effectiveness of agrifood structures, with fair treatment and inclusion for all shareholders that want to gain from such rebuilt policies; enhance the accessibility and decrease the expense of nutritious foods, boosting people's financial viability; and offer an additional incentive to decrease greenhouse gas emissions, respond to climate change, and sustainably manage resources. 

However, a systematic approach will be required to benefit from these opportunities. In other words, complementary remarketing support initiatives in food and agriculture will need to be supported by additional incentives and policies a few of which may apply to other sectors. The success of the overall policy combination will rely on the national framework, where food insecurity and malnutrition can be caused by a variety of factors, including conflict, climatic extremes and volatility, economic slumps, systemic attributes, such as income status, disparities levels, natural resource inheritances, trade balance, and so forth, and political and economic factors and viability.

Policy Recommendations

The following solutions are put out to address 

the issue of food insecurity:

? The UN should impose an internationally enforceable commitment to uphold human rights to water and food throughout violent conflicts and other humanitarian crises.

? To deal with food emergencies brought on by conflicts or natural disasters caused by climate change, the UN must create a proactive food stockpile.

? In order to adequately defend infrastructures and operations associated with food systems (such as agricultural water and land fields, crops, animals, and fisheries, etc.) as non-military objectives, internationally binding rules should be created, with suitable consequences in case of infractions.

? It is necessary to take the right actions to decrease wasted food.

? The gap between manufacturing capacity and output must be closed.

? The diversification of food products must be encouraged with suitable alternatives.

? An effective approach should be taken to combat global warming.

According to the assessment above, the four components of food security, availability, access, usage, and stability, must be used to address the worldwide problem of food insecurity. Since it has a wide variety of quality effects including employment generation, poverty awareness, trade prospects, enhanced health care, and enhanced global security, high-quality, nutritious food is essential to human survival.

Conclusion

In its attempts to eradicate hunger, food shortages, and poverty in all of its manifestations, the world is making regressive progress. Even though 2030 is only eight years away, it will take longer to accomplish several of the sustainable development goals than it has in the past. Attempts are being made to further development, but they are falling short during a more difficult and unpredictable situation now after COVID-19 and the war in Ukraine. In light of the growing food insecurity in Pakistan (South Asia) and the Horn of Africa, factors related to food crises in the Global South have been investigated. This state of affairs will persist until agrifood systems are improved, reinforced, and able to provide healthier meals at lower prices. To address the issue and associated challenges, policy initiatives and responses were also studied and recommendations are given on how governments of the world can contribute more effectively to deal with the challenge of food security and accessibility, especially in the developing world.

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